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Understanding Citations
Back to: Making Citations
There are essentially two types of citations: those that utilize a separate bibliography, and those that do not.
We'll see examples of each.
It is very important that you understand how to read citations so that when someone refers to a book or article that interests you, you can at least begin to find it yourself. There are several standard formats to create citations for others to use. Each one is different and has its own format, but the information given in the citation should be essentially the same. It should give some idea as to the creator of the item, the titles and subtitles associated with it, the publication information (place, publisher, date) and not least important, the page numbers of the text you are citing.
In most cases, the reference from the text you are citing is just a number set above the rest of the text. This is the method that has been used for a long time, and is an example of the first method mentioned above: it does not rely on a separate bibliography, so the entire information must be in the reference.
At other times, the reference is not a number, but a special character, such as * or §. In our example, the citation itself is at the bottom of the page (bibliographical footnote), but it may be at the end of the entire text (bibliographical endnote).
MLA and other footnotes work slightly differently and will discussed below.In the Journal of Philosophy illustration, the citation for note 2 would be something like (Fuller, B.A.G 123), since it would refer to a citation at the end of the text. This would be an example of second type mentioned above, where the reference relies on a bibliography. As we see, there is less information.
In any case, the final product amounts to the same thing: the reader gets enough information to have an idea of who is responsible for the information, and how it can be found.
How do I Read Book Citations?
Here are some examples of how to understand the information in a book citation.
For more information and examples of specific formats, refer to Citation Guides.
How do I Cite Individual Papers from a Collection of Papers in a Book?
Here is an example of a single paper from a collection of papers in a book. We want to cite the article by Prof. Snowden.
The citation is handled normally, but additional information is given for the entire book, so that readers can find the article. Without that information, no one could find it.
Is There Any Help to Make Citations?
Yes, take a look at Automatic Book Citations
JOURNALS
How do I read Journal Citations?
Journal citations are similar to book citations, and are especially similar to the single paper from a collection. With journal citations though, you must include the name and issue number of the journal (otherwise, no one can find the article).
In the following example, we see that the information is very similar to a book citation, except the Title and volume number(s) of the Journal have been included, and the publication information has been left out. (This is because the publication information of an entire journal can change, so such information is of little importance for journals).
Also, be aware that journal titles are often abbreviated.
How do I find Abbreviated Titles?
This can be complicated. The best way is to ask a librarian.
What about electronic journals?
This is very simple. You make the citation for the print item, and then add the information concerning how your accessed the item electronically.
Here is an example article and its citation.
Is There Any Help to Make Journal Citations?
Yes, take a look at Automatic Journal Citations
Article from a Database: No page numbers because there are none on this webpage.
Article from an Internet Journal with no Print Equivalent
Now we can see the citations for Department of Education, Rousseau and Gibbs.
Now that there are more possibilities to share papers than ever before, some resources that were rather rare to find are beginning to become very easy to find. One of these types of publications are known as pre-prints. This happens when a paper has been accepted preliminarily by a journal, but the final version has not been accepted. Normally, this happens during the scholarly peer-review process, when a paper has been accepted but only with the proviso that certain changes are made. Modern publishing practices has allowed the initial paper to be published.
Some pre-print servers are so powerful that they are often the first place that scholars go, for example, the arXiv.org site, which hosts hundreds of thousands of articles in Physics, Mathematics, Computer Science, Quantitative Biology, Quantitative Finance and Statistics. When you cite one of these resource, It is important to declare the version you are using, but there are only a few guidelines for this. The APA manual says that you should use the term "Advance online publication" in these cases. See the related APA Citation Manual at Monash University Library. Look under the section: Journal article - electronic differing from printed version.
There are many other possibilities for citing sources, and things are changing. It is best to refer to the Citation Guides, which will provide many more examples and formats.
AND.... you can always ask a librarian!
There are essentially two types of citations: those that utilize a separate bibliography, and those that do not.
- The first typedoes not utilize a separate bibliography, so the reference must contain the entire description of the item being cited.
- The second type does refer to a separate bibliography where the entire citation will be, so less information is needed.
We'll see examples of each.
BOOKS
It is very important that you understand how to read citations so that when someone refers to a book or article that interests you, you can at least begin to find it yourself. There are several standard formats to create citations for others to use. Each one is different and has its own format, but the information given in the citation should be essentially the same. It should give some idea as to the creator of the item, the titles and subtitles associated with it, the publication information (place, publisher, date) and not least important, the page numbers of the text you are citing.
In most cases, the reference from the text you are citing is just a number set above the rest of the text. This is the method that has been used for a long time, and is an example of the first method mentioned above: it does not rely on a separate bibliography, so the entire information must be in the reference.
At other times, the reference is not a number, but a special character, such as * or §. In our example, the citation itself is at the bottom of the page (bibliographical footnote), but it may be at the end of the entire text (bibliographical endnote).
MLA and other footnotes work slightly differently and will discussed below.In the Journal of Philosophy illustration, the citation for note 2 would be something like (Fuller, B.A.G 123), since it would refer to a citation at the end of the text. This would be an example of second type mentioned above, where the reference relies on a bibliography. As we see, there is less information.
In any case, the final product amounts to the same thing: the reader gets enough information to have an idea of who is responsible for the information, and how it can be found.
How do I Read Book Citations?
Here are some examples of how to understand the information in a book citation.
Page Numbers
We can see that in some formats, the page numbers are included in the citation (e.g. Chicago and Turabian), but in other formats, they may be included in the bibliographic reference shown above. For example, to cite a specific page from the MLA example above, you would do something like
[text referenced from page 123 of J.C. Rolfe's book]. (Rolfe 123)
This lets the readers know that when they go to the Works Cited page, they can find Rolfeand read the citation.
We can see that in some formats, the page numbers are included in the citation (e.g. Chicago and Turabian), but in other formats, they may be included in the bibliographic reference shown above. For example, to cite a specific page from the MLA example above, you would do something like
[text referenced from page 123 of J.C. Rolfe's book]. (Rolfe 123)
This lets the readers know that when they go to the Works Cited page, they can find Rolfeand read the citation.
For more information and examples of specific formats, refer to Citation Guides.
How do I Cite Individual Papers from a Collection of Papers in a Book?
Here is an example of a single paper from a collection of papers in a book. We want to cite the article by Prof. Snowden.
Table of Contents 1 Aftoasiatic CARLETON T. HODGE 2 Egypt and Nubia: Old, Middle, and New Kingdom Eras 3 Egypt and the Kushites: Dynasty XXV EDNA R. RUSSMANN 4 The Kingdom of Meroe STANLEY M. BURSTEIN 5 The Ballaia Kingdom and Culture: Twilight of Classical Nubia WILLIAM Y. ADAMS 6 The Berbers of the Maghreb and Ancient Carthage REUBEN G. BULLARD 7 An Archaeological Survey of the Cyrenaican and Marmarican Regions of Northeast Africa DONALD WHITE 8 Attitudes towards Blacks in the Greek and Roman World: Misinterpretations of the Evidence FRANK M. SNOWDEN, JR. 9 Some Remarks on the Processes of State Formation in Egypt and Ethiopia KATHRYN A. BARD AND RODOLFO FATTOVICH 10 Colonizing the Past: Origin Myths of the Great Zimbabwe Ruins MAYNARD W. SWANSON List of Contributors |  |
The citation is handled normally, but additional information is given for the entire book, so that readers can find the article. Without that information, no one could find it.
Is There Any Help to Make Citations?
Yes, take a look at Automatic Book Citations
JOURNALS
Journal citations are similar to book citations, and are especially similar to the single paper from a collection. With journal citations though, you must include the name and issue number of the journal (otherwise, no one can find the article).
In the following example, we see that the information is very similar to a book citation, except the Title and volume number(s) of the Journal have been included, and the publication information has been left out. (This is because the publication information of an entire journal can change, so such information is of little importance for journals).
Also, be aware that journal titles are often abbreviated.
If you neglect to add the v. 222 no. 2, it would be very difficult to find this specific article, you would be left with the date and it could be difficult to find the issue.
This can be complicated. The best way is to ask a librarian.
What about electronic journals?
This is very simple. You make the citation for the print item, and then add the information concerning how your accessed the item electronically.
Here is an example article and its citation.
Is There Any Help to Make Journal Citations?
Yes, take a look at Automatic Journal Citations
How Do I Read Other Citations?
Article from a Database: No page numbers because there are none on this webpage.
| Schrader, Alvin. "INTERNET CENSORSHIP: Issues for teacher-librarians." Teacher Librarian 26.5 (May 1999): 8. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [The American University of Rome Library], [Rome, Italy]. 16 Mar. 2008 <http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=1934831&site=ehost-live>. |
Article from an Internet Journal with no Print Equivalent
| Foster, S. K., Paulk, A., & Dastoor, B. R. (1999). Can we really teach test-taking skills? New Horizons in Adult Education, 13 (1). Retrieved February 7, 2000, from http://www.nova.edu/~aed/newhorizons.html |
Citations Example: Working with the Bibliography
As we have noted, many times the references work in conjunction with the bibliography. Here is an example. The references, marked in red, refer the reader to the bibliography, located at the back of the item.
As we have noted, many times the references work in conjunction with the bibliography. Here is an example. The references, marked in red, refer the reader to the bibliography, located at the back of the item.
Let us turn to the critique of the specific lists under consideration by the Department. It is in their nature to be conservative, and this naturally implies certain biases. The five lists are strongly inclined to favour English as the language of academic discourse and publication. This recognises what is clearly an objective reality in the world of scholarly communication. The Minister of Education, indeed, has stated that he 'acknowledges the current position of English and Afrikaans as the dominant languages of instruction in higher education and believes that in the light of practical and other considerations it will be necessary to work within the confines of the status quo until such time as other South African languages have been developed to a level where they may be used in all higher education functions' (Department of Education 2002: 10). While we reluctantly accept this as realistic policy, we suggest that the Department may be missing an opportunity for the active promotion of multilingualism. This is a declared policy objective, yet there is no reference to possible support for publication in South African languages anywhere in the Policy and procedures for measurement of research document. Similarly, the overseas lists and citation indexes are understandably biased in favour of the so-called 'international‘ journals (i.e. predominantly those published in the United States or the United Kingdom).2We shall return to this point below, but we want to emphasise that we are most emphatically not advocating a crude 'local is lekker' philosophy at all costs. Of course South African researchers must publish internationally; and of course the communities of referees doing peer review must remain as diverse as possible. But the lists as they are made up at present are skewed. A subtle but important point is that journals that are marginally included and excluded in citation lists as the result of ranking by citation impact are vulnerable to 'noise and random effects' that may lead to considerable fluctuations in their rankings over quite short time periods (Rousseau 2002: 428). Thus the inclusion or exclusion of low impact journals from citation lists does not necessarily reflect significant differences in quality. The lists also tend to favour recognition of print or print-plus-electronic publication as a medium, rather than embracing new means of scholarly communication such as purely electronic journals or scholarly open archives. Adherence to the use of these simple indexes may be predicated on a (perhaps rapidly) disappearing model of scholarly communication. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. The importance of this insight becomes even clearer when we consider that in 1995, ISI was indexing about 3,300 scientific journals from the 70,000 or so published worldwide - or about 4.7 percent of the literature (Gibbs, 1995:76). This level of participation, as Christopher T. Zielinski of the World Health Organization has commented, 'is simply too little to account for the scientific output of eighty percent of the world' (cited by Gibbs, 1995:79). 2. Rousseau argues, citing Garfield, that there is no 'scientifically valid definition of bias' but does not seem to argue against the truth of the charge (2002: 429). |
Now we can see the citations for Department of Education, Rousseau and Gibbs.
References Bradford, S. C. 1948. Documentation. London: Crosby Lockwood. Brittz, J. J. & Lor, P. 2003. A moral reflection on the information flow from South to North: an African perspective Libri 53f3V 160-173. Dept.. of Education. 2002. Language policy for higher education. November. [PDF file] Available: http://www.ched.uct.ac.za/offee/ldg/doelanguagepolicy.pdf [site visited 7 March 2004]. Dept. of Education. 2003. Policy and procedures for measurement of research output of public higher education institutions. [PDF file] Available: http://education.pwv.gov.za/content/documents/307.pdf [site visited 7 March 2004]. Garfield, E. 1979. How do we select journals for Current Contents! Current Contents 45 (5 November):5-8. Garfield, E. 1990. How ISI selects journals for coverage: quantitative and qualitative considerations. Current Contents 22 (28 May): 185-193. Garfield, E. 1993. Despite problems with peer review, science publishing is healthier than ever. The Scientist, 7(18): 12. [Web page] Available: http://www.the-scientist.com/yr1993/sep/comm_9309Z0.html [site visited 11 August 2003]. Gibbs, W. W. 1995. Lost science in the Third World. Scientific American. 273(2):76-83. Jacobs, D. 2001. A bibliometric study of the publication patterns of scientists in South Africa 1992-96, with particular reference to status and funding. Information Research 6 (3). Available: http://informationr.net/ir/6-3/paperl04.html [site visited 11 August 2003]. Milloy, S. 2002. Freaky frog fraud. PestFacts.org. [Web page] Available: http://www.pestfacts.org/freakyjrog.html [site visited 11 November 2002]. Moya-Anegon, F. & Herrero-Solana, V. 2002. Visibilidad internacional de la produccion cientffica iberoamericana en biblioteconomia y documentacion, 1991 -2000. Ciencia da Informagao [Brasilia], 31 (3): 54-65. Romanos de Tiratel, S. and others. 2003. Las revistas argentinas de filologfa, literatura y linguistica: visibilidad en bases de datos internacionales. Ciencia da Informagao [Brasilia], 32 (3): 128-139. Rousseau, R. 2002. Journal evaluation: technical and practical issues. Library Trends 50(3): 418-439. Scheven, Y. 1977. Africana in the indexes. History in Africa 4: 207-227. Sturrock, J. 1998. Le pauvre Sokal. London Review of Books 20 (14) (I6july). Available: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v20/nl4/sturOI _.html [site visited 11 August 2003]. Theoretical physics: publish and perish. 2002. Economist. 365 (16 November):82. Warner, J. 2000. A critical review of the application of citation studies to the Research Assessment Exercises |
PRE-PRINTS
Now that there are more possibilities to share papers than ever before, some resources that were rather rare to find are beginning to become very easy to find. One of these types of publications are known as pre-prints. This happens when a paper has been accepted preliminarily by a journal, but the final version has not been accepted. Normally, this happens during the scholarly peer-review process, when a paper has been accepted but only with the proviso that certain changes are made. Modern publishing practices has allowed the initial paper to be published.
Some pre-print servers are so powerful that they are often the first place that scholars go, for example, the arXiv.org site, which hosts hundreds of thousands of articles in Physics, Mathematics, Computer Science, Quantitative Biology, Quantitative Finance and Statistics. When you cite one of these resource, It is important to declare the version you are using, but there are only a few guidelines for this. The APA manual says that you should use the term "Advance online publication" in these cases. See the related APA Citation Manual at Monash University Library. Look under the section: Journal article - electronic differing from printed version.
There are many other possibilities for citing sources, and things are changing. It is best to refer to the Citation Guides, which will provide many more examples and formats.
AND.... you can always ask a librarian!
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